How to Conduct a Hypothesis Test in Statistics

How to Conduct a Hypothesis Test in Statistics The idea of hypothesis testing is relatively straightforward. In various studies, we observe certain events. We must ask, is the event due to chance alone, or is there some cause that we should be looking for? We need to have a way to differentiate between events that easily occur by chance and those that are highly unlikely to occur randomly. Such a method should be streamlined and well defined so that others can replicate our statistical experiments. There are a few different methods used to conduct hypothesis tests. One of these methods is known as the traditional method, and another involves what is known as a p-value. The steps of these two most common methods are identical up to a point, then diverge slightly. Both the traditional method for hypothesis testing and the p-value method are outlined below. The Traditional Method The traditional method is as follows: Begin by stating the claim or hypothesis that is being tested. Also, form a statement for the case that the hypothesis is false.Express both of the statements from the first step in mathematical symbols. These statements will use symbols such as inequalities and equals signs.Identify which of the two symbolic statements does not have equality in it. This could simply be a not equals sign, but could also be an is less than sign ( ). The statement containing inequality is called the alternative hypothesis and is denoted H1 or Ha.The statement from the first step that makes the statement that a parameter equals a particular value is called the null hypothesis, denoted H0.Choose which significance level that we want. A significance level is typically denoted by the Greek letter alpha. Here we should consider Type I errors. A Type I error occurs when we reject a null hypothesis that is actually true. If we are very concerned about this possibility occurring, then our value for alpha shoul d be small. There is a bit of a trade-off here. The smaller the alpha, the most costly the experiment. The values 0.05 and 0.01 are common values used for alpha, but any positive number between 0 and 0.50 could be used for a significance level. Determine which statistic and distribution we should use. The type of distribution is dictated by features of the data. Common distributions include z score, t score, and chi-squared.Find the test statistic and critical value for this statistic. Here we will have to consider if we are conducting a two-tailed test (typically when the alternative hypothesis contains a â€Å"is not equal to† symbol, or a one-tailed test (typically used when an inequality is involved in the statement of the alternative hypothesis).From the type of distribution, confidence level, critical value, and test statistic we sketch a graph.If the test statistic is in our critical region, then we must reject the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis stands. If the test statistic is not in our critical region, then we fail to reject the null hypothesis. This does not prove that the null hypothesis is true, but gives a way to quantify how likely it is to be true.We now state the results of the hypothesi s test in such a way that the original claim is addressed. The p-Value Method The p-value method is nearly identical to the traditional method. The first six steps are the same. For step seven we find the test statistic and p-value. We then reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is less than or equal to alpha. We fail to reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is greater than alpha. We then wrap up the test as before, by clearly stating the results.

Organizational Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 12

Organizational Behavior - Essay Example Ganesan was on temporary assignment at Kurunegala and was hoping to return to the central office in Colombo. In this case there is no communication about the appointment because the district manager is not aware, and the letter was from the top management. The scenario is depressing because the former manager was not demoted, promoted and neither was he transferred to another branch. In this situation, one feels insecure about the job and is not sure when he/she will lose the position. Insufficent flow of information by the top management and the district manager’s office exhibits lack of efficiency in the organization. As argued by Ferreira, Erasmus & Groenewald (2009), communication is the foundation of all relationships (p.94). The successful organization performance relies on the efficient transfer of details. Communication influences the operations of an organization and affects decision-making. It is, therefore, evident that the bank’s top management viewed Ganesan as the most appropriate individual to take over the position of the branch manager. From his experience of interacting with the community during his field assignments, he possessed a lot of information about what happened in the society. It is easy for him to be cautious when making decisions about loans. According to Taussig (2007), a successful bank manager must have the quality of excellent judgment (p.350). He/she must be able to make a good judge of businesses, as well as people . As the branch manager, I would establish the most efficient mode of communication. The Colombo National Bank did not have modern means of communication that contributed to a lot of time wastage. The organization needs a well-defined communication network that will enable communication and information to flow to the target group. The bank comprises of various people integrating internally and externally. Therefore, it is paramount to

Trace the historical deveopment of payment systems from cash to Research Paper

Trace the historical deveopment of payment systems from cash to negotiable instruments to electonic funds transfer and debit cards - Research Paper Example s related to payment systems for the business transactions (Economy Watch, â€Å"Global Economy†) In this regard, organizations and inhabitants are able to undertake the operations nationally as well as in a global context with better efficiency and effectiveness. The transactions include transfer of goods and/or services, investment and fund among others. Thus, in the modern day context numerous transactions take place on a daily basis. These transactions deal with acquisition of financial assets, goods and other services. In this regards, a well defined payment system significantly aids to recognize as an important function in order to eliminate the fictions in the trading environment (BSP, â€Å"What is a payment system?†). Payment system comprises of various instruments, banking procedures along with the interbank transfer of funds to regulate the transfer of funds both nationally and internationally environment. Banking transaction between the parties is an important medium in the developed economy for making payments. Besides, the payment system is an important part of the economic and financial infrastructure. The effective functioning of the payment system enables the transaction to be completed safely and within the time. Moreover, the payment system is highly affected due to the high exposure of risk to the parties to the contract. Thus, the consideration of the proper security measure in order to control the feature of payment system is also very important to mitigate the risk related to it (CPSS 431-449) Correspondingly, the payment system allows the buyers and sellers to complete the transaction in very safe and timely manner in electronic forms. In this regard, it can also be affirmed that t he payment system is the key determinant of financial markets to settle the trading agreements that include government securities, stocks, foreign exchange, commercial paper and bonds among others. Likewise, there are various risks attached to the payment system

A Poets response to place is rarely purely descriptive Essay Example for Free

A Poets response to place is rarely purely descriptive Essay In this essay I will write about whether I agree with the statement above, or not. I will base my conclusion upon a detailed examination of two poems. I will look at the ideas and techniques poets use, language and imagery etc. I agree with the above statement, I feel nothing is purely descriptive, for example when someone says That house looks deep-rooted and daunting the quote is descriptive as well as being someones personal opinion. To one person it may look daunting but to another the house may look safe and restful. Whenever someone describes something, it always includes an opinion, so nothing can ever be purely descriptive. I will back up my opinion by looking at the two poems: London -William Blake (1757-1827) Dover Beach -Matthew Arnold (1823-1888) London is a poem about William Blakes interpretation of the dark side of London, he talks about how everyone is suffering, and how everyone is looking for freedom, no one has a future. Dover Beach is a poem about a beach in England, Matthew Arnold is describing what he feels is wrong with the world, and the reasons for the problems we have. London A poem of social protest, against the suffering of all who live in a world such as this. Written in 1789 (during the British industrial revolution). Not a poem of observed factual detail but Blakes perception of London, he uses the traditional form of alternate rhyming lines to imitate the repetitive predictability of the circle of suffering. London shows that: if the institution and structure of a place is corrupt then the people can never have a chance for innocence. In his poem Blake describes to the reader how there are legal restrictions on the roads, Charterd street. Also how the river Thames is governed Charterd Thames The quotation shows that even a river which should seem free, is owned , restricted. When Blake describes the restrictions, he is also enlightening the reader about the state of the residents of London, mind forgd manacles this quotation shows the depression and imprisoning of people, in their own mind. People are searching for liberty. People in London are abandoning the church because there lives are going so wrong Every Blackning Church appalls. The word plagues really gives us the impact of the place he was walking through, its a very pungent word. In this Poem, Blake uses disconnected stanzas, almost to describe the place where he is , nothing is stable, including peoples life. The rhythm of the poem is monotonous, there is not one positive image or feeling. There is also assonance to reinforce what he is saying. In this Poem, Blake starts to describe London, but as soon as he does, he describes the way people live and how they drastically lack liberty. Dover Beach is a melancholic poem. Matthew Arnold uses the means of pathetic fallacy, when he projects the human feeling of sadness onto an inanimate object like the sea. A repetition of neithernor in stanza 4 underlines a series of denials: . . . neither joy, nor love, nor light/ Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain; (l. 33-34). All these are basic human values. If none of these do truly exist, this raises the question of what remains. With these lines, Arnold draws a nihilistic view of the world he is living in. Throughout the poem, the sea is used as an image and a metaphor. At first, it is beautiful to look at in the moonlight (ll.1-8), then it begins to make hostile sounds (grating roar (l. 9); tremulous cadence (l.13)) that suggest a general feeling of sadness. In the third stanza, the sea is turned into a metaphoric Sea of Faith (l.21) a symbol for a time when religion could still be experienced without the doubts brought about by progress and science (Darwinism). Now, the Sea of Faith and also the certainty of religion withdraws itself from the human grasp and leaves only darkness behind. Matthew Arnold, not only describes Dover beach, he describes he thoughts on the world, and why things are the way they are. To conclude with both the poems I have looked at, have reinforced the statement: A Poets response to place is rarely purely descriptive I have shown by using London and Dover beach that a poet always does so much more than simply describe a place, the poets own thoughts and feelings shine through. The reader gets taken deep down into the poem ,and finds out why the poet feels the way he/she does. Each poem is an insight to the way poets feel about places. Neither poems just describes a place, therefore I empathize with the above statement.

Reality Is Perception :: essays research papers

Reality Is Perception Human reality is full of physical objects but how humans perceive these objects is completely objective, depending on the person and there senses. Perception of physical objects cannot occur without other objects that allow one to perceive these manifestations in the first place. When a sentient being acknowledges that they "exist in a world of physical objects", they also confirm that their sense perception functions to an extent which allows them to reason, even to a small degree, their physical existence. What is a physical object? Does a physical object have to be something you can see, touch, feel, taste, or smell or can a physical object exist without one being able to confirm its existence? Is the sensory perception of a fly wrong just because it has over a 1000 eyes or is the way humans view the world incorrect because we do not? A blind man can still help a person distinguish a colour because no one perception is ever totally interpreted by only one sensory organ. Many other animals on earth do not just rely on there sight for information about their world. For instance fish in totally dark areas of the ocean have no eyes and yet can still maneuver around in there environment by sensing ripples in their area with special sense organs on their body. Birds also seem to use the magnetic lines of the earth to navigate south for the winter each year. It would be foolish to make the statement that all sensory perception of the world is circumspect and is exactly the same for all creatures. All animals on the planet earth live in a hermeneutic spiral meaning that we all live in the past. Humans as with other animals can only sense a cause after it has made an effect. The assumption is made that if we sense an effect there must therefore be a cause, which leads to a naà ¯ve realism of perception. As well, with sensory perception there is a large amount of extraneous information such as emotional and ideological that causes interference as to how we interpret the information received. This misinterpretation can happen from the time an action is made to the time when we seem to perceive the action. This can be seen for instance when at a baseball game the batter bats a home run and only after a second or two you hear the crack of the bat on the ball. This can be explained because the speed of light which allows you to see the batter hitting the ball is much faster than the

How the Grinch stole Christmas Poem Essay

â€Å"How the Grinch stole Christmas† is a well-known and important poem in the literary canon. This poem simply talks about how the Grinch plans to ruin Christmas for the Whos in Who Ville, which then backfires and leads to self-realization for the Grinch. I decided to use the psychoanalytical theory to demonstrate the persona of the Grinch, and to unravel the possible reasons for his drive towards belligerence and destruction. To commence, it is obvious the Grinch has no interactions with the people of Who Ville, which explains his alienation. His noticeable difference amongst the other Whos was a result to his lack of conformity. His plan to ruin Christmas for the Whos was perhaps an indication of an unconscious desire for his own downfall. Watching the Whos surrounded with happiness brings about the Grinch’s decision to inject some trouble into the celebration. He anticipated his own feelings of displeasure and misery onto the Whos when he predicted that they would all cry â€Å"boo, who† upon discovering that they would not be celebrating Christmas. The Grinch’s tendency toward cynicism, hostility, and aggression demonstrates his desire for destruction. His desire for destruction stems from the fact that he feels isolated. Thus, he tends to destroy the joy of the people in Who Ville, with the tendency of making them reach the same level of depression and misery he is in. The Grinch wanted the Whos’ merry-making to come to an end, despite their needs and wants. This poem presented psychological theories in the Grinch. The Grinch’s thoughts and actions in this poem is a proof of this work being under the psychoanalytic theory. I learned from this poem by analyzing the character is that people with a sensitive sense of social isolation, appear to have a decreased response to things that make most people happy, and have a keen urge towards human conflict, manipulation and conspiracies.

Preaching and the Imagination Thesis Research - 759 Words

This thesis is a study of imagination as related to exegesis in preaching. The content of preaching has been emphasized and studied in Seminaries, but the method for effective preaching has been treated in generalities. Now it is the time to think more specifically about processes which can help the preacher deliver biblical and powerful sermons that transform the lives of the hearers. One such process is that involving human imagination in relation to the exegesis and exposition of biblical texts for preaching. This thesis attempts to define exegesis, to present the foundation of imagination, and to give examples of the proper use of imagination in the Bible and by great preachers, contrasting these with the misuse of imagination. Finally, the thesis lays out the role of imagination in preaching and in the mind of the audience. A preacher needs a balance between the honest exegesis of the text and practical application of the truth. For this balance sanctified imagination, which is a work of the Holy Spirit, plays an important role. Sanctified imagination functions in an interaction between God’s part (revelation) which is exegeted (observed and interpreted) and the creation part (our exposition and application), in the process of making the sermon, thus bridging the gap between the bible times and today. Understanding of God’s Word must precede the creative aspect in sermonizing. Without honest exegesis, preaching can be neither biblical nor powerful. But without theShow MoreRelatedIs Image Is Everything?1312 Words   |  6 Pagesof using words and actions to reveal the elements and images of a story while encouraging the listener s imagination, it is interactive. Storytelling involves a two-way interaction between a storyteller and one or more listeners. (Webster) Pastors as, storytellers/p oets, are allowed freedom to infuse charisma, charm, and eloquent speech into the sermon. Therefore, the storyteller/poet preaching image combines the narratives of Biblical text, with personal experiences and life lessons to create anRead MoreA Linguistic Analysis of Obama’s Inaugural Address9492 Words   |  38 PagesRhythm and Rhetoric: A Linguistic Analysis of Obama’s Inaugural Address Liilia Batluk Supervisor: Stuart Foster School of Humanities Halmstad University Bachelor’s thesis in English Acknowledgment My appreciations to my supervisor Stuart Foster for very helpful advice during the research. Abstract In this essay I shall analyze Barack Obama’s Inaugural Address, January, 2009 from the perspective of various linguistic techniques. More specifically, I shall propose and focus on the idea that theRead MoreA Good Man Is Hard To Find† Essay2784 Words   |  12 PagesChristian faith only happens in the last moments of her life (Bloom 147). 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Both theme and thesis imply a subject and a predicate of some kind—not just vice in general, say, but some such proposition as â€Å"Vice seems more interesting than virtueRead MoreThe 7 Doors Model for Designing Evaluating Behaviour Change Programs13191 Words   |  53 Pagesexperiment I carried out in 1998. I asked, What it would take to get me to change my own behaviour? The model has been refined from responses in training workshops, consideration of cognitive theories of change; and the results of some formal empirical research that I conducted. Here below is the latest version of this model. [pic] PREDISPOSING FACTORS 1. Role models and visions In this model people tend to adopt voluntary changes because they are unhappy, frustrated or dissatisfied with their lives orRead MoreFrancis Bacon15624 Words   |  63 Pagestruly astonishing. He possessed an intellect of the highest order. He was learned in Greek, French, Latin, English, Science, Philosophy, Classics and many other fields of knowledge. He is regarded as the creator of the modern school of experimental research. He held that â€Å"man is the servant and interpreter of nature†. He supplied the impulse which broke with the medieval preconceptions and set scientific inquiry on modern lines. He emphasized on experimentation and not to accept things for granted.Read MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesManager: Kelly Warsak Senior Operations Supervisor: Arnold Vila Operations Specialist: Ilene Kahn Senior Art Director: Janet Slowik Interior Design: Suzanne Duda and Michael Fruhbeis Permissions Project Manager: Shannon Barbe Manager, Cover Visual Research Permissions: Karen Sanatar Manager Central Design: Jayne Conte Cover Art: Getty Images, Inc. Cover Design: Suzanne Duda Lead Media Project Manager: Denise Vaughn Full-Service Project Management: Sharon Anderson/BookMasters, Inc. Composition: IntegraRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesFoundations of Organization Structure 479 v vi BRIEF CONTENTS 4 The Organization System 16 Organizational Culture 511 17 Human Resource Policies and Practices 543 18 Organizational Change and Stress Management 577 Appendix A Research in Organizational Behavior Comprehensive Cases Indexes Glindex 637 663 616 623 Contents Preface xxii 1 1 Introduction What Is Organizational Behavior? 3 The Importance of Interpersonal Skills 4 What Managers Do 5 Management